| Brooke Bond | PG Tips | Out Into Space


	THE SUN is the centre of our life and the main body of the solar system. It is only one of millions of stars - some larger and others smaller. The nearest star is 25 million million miles away from the Earth whereas the Sun is only just under 93 million miles away-hence its apparent size - brilliance and power. The Sun's temperature is calculated to be 6,000 Centigrade. The diameter of the Sun is over too times greater than the Earth's.
	MOON AND ITS PHASES The Moon does not emit light - but only reflects light emitted by the Sun. It travels around the Earth in 27 days 7 hours and rotates on its axis in the same time; consequently - the same face of the Moon is always turned towards us. During its journey we see first a narrow crescent (new moon) which gradually widens until the whole surface is visible (full moon) - then it gradually diminishes until nothing at all is seen. Period from New Moon to New Moon averages 29 1/2 days: 1st Quarter 71/2 days; Full 14 3/4 days.
	ECLIPSE OF THE SUN When - as shown - the Moon comes in a direct line between the Sun and Earth it hides the Sun from view for a few minutes causing a "Total" eclipse in that part of the Earth touched on the diagram by the black pointer - but only a "Partial" eclipse in the shaded part surrounding that point It may happen occasionally that although the Moon is central over the Sun a thin rim of sunlight can be seen round Moon's edge. This is called an "Annular" eclipse - and happens if the Moon is farther than usual from the Earth - and so looks smaller.
	ECLIPSE OF THE MOON The Moon is eclipsed when the Earth is in a direct line between the Sun and Moon - and the Earth's shadow covers it. This can only occur at Full Moon. Even when the Moon is totally shadowed it may still be observed because sunbeams which have touched the edge of the Earth have been refracted by the Earth's atmosphere and turned inwarda into the shadow - illuminating the Moon with a coppery colour. This is due to the great thickness of atmosphere through which sunbeams pass. Colour effects at sunset are from the same cause.
	SEASONS These are the four quarters of lie solar year - namely; Spring - beginning when the Sun enters theconstellation of Aries - the Ram - at the time of the Vernal Equinox - March 21st Summer (the Summer Solstice - June 2 1st) starting when it enters Cancer - the Crab; Autumn - when it enters Libra - the Balance - at the Autumnal Equinox - September 23rd Winter (Winter Solstice - December 21st) when it enters Capricornus - the Goat. The difference between these seasons is caused by the varied angles the Earth's surface presents towards the Sun at different times of the year.
	MOON-EFFECT ON TIDES The rise and fall of the sea is produced by the attraction of the Sun and Moon. The Moon is the principal factor. High water to high water is about 12 hours 35 minutes. The greatest or 'Spring' tides occur when Sun and Moon art together at New Moon or when the Earth is immediately between them at Full Moon. The smallest or 'Neap' tides occur when the Sun - Moon and Earth form a right angle. This is at Half Moon - when the Moon's pull acts against the Sun's - and causes tides then to be at minimum.
	ROTATING EARth The Terrestrial Equator is an imaginary circle around the Earth equidistant from the Poles - separating Northern from Southern hemisphere. The Celestial Equator is an extension of the Terrestrial Equator and is equidistant from the Poles of the heavens. The Ecliptic is the path of the Earth's revolution around the Sun - and is inclined to the Celestial Equator at an angle of 23' 27' - called "Obliquiry of Ecliptic". Direction of the Earth's axis never varies. Tropics are circles on celestial sphere 23' 27' on each side of Equator.
	PLANETS-ORBITS All Planets revolve around the Sun anti-clockwise as seen from the north - and differ in size - speed - velocity of axial rotation - etc. Their paths or orbits are not circular but elliptic. The Sun is their focus. Every orbit lies within 7' of the plane of the Earth's orbit except Pluto's (too distant to include in picture) - which is inclined at 17'. Mercury takes 88 - Venus 224 - Earth 365 and Mars 687 days to complete their orbits. Jupiter takes approx. 12 years - Satum 29 - Uranus 84 and Neptune 165 years. Pluto takes 248 years.
	PLANETS AND THEIR MOONS All planets with the exception of Mercury - Venus and Pluto have their moons (or "satellites") which revolve around them. Each takes a definite time to complete its orbit. The period of the four largest Jupiter satellites is 2 - 4 - 7 and 17 days. Mars has two tiny moons - both approximately only to miles in diameter. One is approximately 6000 miles from the planer and the other 15 - ooo miles. Al-though as telescopes have become more powerful - more satellites have been discovered attached to other planets - our Moon is the Earth's only satellite.
	MINOR PLANETS or Asteroids Thousands of very small bodies form a ring between Mars and Jupiter - the largest being only 480 miles in diameter. The smallest known are considered to be only a few miles across. They are mostly Invisible to the naked eye and are called Minor Planets. The first minor planet to be discovered was Cares - by Piazzi - on 1st January - 1801 - and so named after the Goddess of Corn and Harvest. Vesta - the brightest - was discovered in 1807. Those now discovered number nearly 2,000 They may be parts of a larger planet - broken up or not yet formed.
	PLANETS-sizeS Of the nine Major Planets - Mercury - Venus - the Earth and Mars are known as Inner Planets; Jupiter - Saturn - Uranus - Neptune and Pluto as Outer Planets. The diameters of the planets in thousands of miles are approximately Mercury 3' Mars 4 - Pluto 4 - Venus 7 1/2 the Earth 8 - Neptune 28 - Uranus 31 - Saturn 75 - Jupiter 88. Owing to their greater distance from the Earth - the big Outer Planets appear to be about the same size as the others. Mercury and Venus are also known as Inferior Planets. Others whose orbits are outside the Earth's are called Superior Planets.
	MERCURY is 3,000 miles in diameter - a much larger globe than the Moon. First record of its observation was in 265 B.C. Owing to its proximity to the Sun - it is difficult to see - never appearing in a dark sky; but every few years it may be found near the horizon - an hour after sunset - in April-May. Often it is crescent-shaped like the Moon. Mercury takes about 88 days to revolve around the Sun at a mean distance of 35,750,000 miles. Its velocity varies between 23 and 33 miles a second - being quicker when nearer the Sun.
	VENUS Named Lucifer (Morning Star) and Hesperos (Evening Star) by the Ancients - Venus comes nearest to the Earth and is the brightest planet. At its greatest brilliance it can be seen by the naked eye in fsall sunlight within an hour of noon. Venus is nearly the same size as the Earth - diameter 7,600 miles. Mean distance 67,000,000 miles from the Sun - around which it revolves in approximately 225 days. At rare intervals it can be seen in transit across the Sun and observations of its transit in 1769 resulted in the first accurate knowledge of the Sun's distance.
	MARS Fourth Planet from the Sun. Distingulshed from others reddish light. Mean distance from the Sun is approximately 141,500,000 miles. Nearest distance from the Earth is 34,500,000 Diamete miles. Revolves around the Sun in 687 days. Rotates on axis in 37 inns. Possibility of life on Mars has always intrigued observers. ings once thought to be continents and seas can be seen; some observers have seen long straight "canals". White patches near the poles are pt hoar-frost.
	JUPITER An aeropune travelling at 500 m.p.h. would take 90 years to reach Jupiter - the largest of plaisets. Its diameter is 88,000 miles atid its bulk 1,230 times that of thr Earth. It is 300 times heavier than the Earth. Jupiter takes nearly 12 years ti - complete its elliptic orbit around the Sun at a mean distance ut 493,000,000 miles. Its surface is cloud-covered so cannot be seen - and it rotates on its axis in 9 hrs. 50 mini. Two of Jupiter's moons exceed Mercury in size and were first thought to be fixed stars not connected with the planet.
	SATURN is a huge globe surrounded by three rings and has nine satellites or moons. The rings are composed of myriads of very small moonlets - the middle ring being the most brilliant. They form a circular band 40,000 miles wide with a thickness of too miles. Saturn is 887,100,000 miles from the Sun and takes 29 years to complete its orbit. During its course the rings are observed at various angles - being nearly invisible when the plane passes through the Earth and Sun. They are not visible to the naked eye - and were not known until the telescope was invented.
	URANUS is rarely visible to the naked eye. Its diameter is four times greater than that of she Earth - and is volume about 64 times greater; but it is only 15 times as heavy because it is composed of lighter materials. Peiod of rotati. - n is 10 10 hrs 45 mins and it takes 94 years to complete its orbit - the diameter of which is 3,600,000,000 miles. Its orbital speed is 15,110 mph. approximately. The orbits of its 'atellites are unique in that they all lie in the same plane - nearly at rjght angles to the plane of the sirhit 01 Uranus round she Sun.
	NEPTUNE has a pale bluish hue. Its mean distance from the Sun is 2,793,000,000 miles. Seen from Neptune - the Sun wi - uld appear as large as Venus does when viewed from the Earth - but intensity of the Sun's light would be about a million times greater. Diameter of Neptune is 27,800 miles. Rotation time 15 hes. 40 mins - Takes 164 years and 7 months to complete its orbit around the Sun travelling at about 12,080 mph. Its orbit is more nearly circular than that of any planet except Venus. Neptune weighs about one 19,314th part of the Sun. Its density is less than half that of the Earth.
	COMETS are common - curious and impressive visitors. They move amongst the stars like planets. Most are small and can be seen only with a telescope. Their orbits vary: some are parabolic - but most are elliptic. Sometimes they increase enormously in size and likewise diminish. Coming from afar they go round the Sun and then disappear from whence they came. Majority have no 'tail' - but some have a large 'tail' which always points away from the Sun; these 'tails' caused the Greeks to call them "the long-haired ones" - hence name Comets Kometes (Gr.) 'long-haired'.
	METEORS (Meteorites) (sometimes called Shooting Stars - Aerolites or Bolides) are very common. Millions enter the Earth's atmosphere daily. Friction - resulting from terrific speed at which they travel - makes them ignite and vaporize. Although most are completely bumt out - some ultimately explode - scattering debris far and wide. Some Meteors are of stone - others are metal-usually an alloy of iron and nickel with traces of other inetals. Largest Meteorite ever found fell at Groetfontein in South West Africa; it weighs about fifty tons and consists of iorn and nickel
	ZODIAC (PAth of Creatures) is a zone of girlde extendign around the heavens includign all the heavenly bodies within eight degress on each side of ths Sun's path. It contains 12 constellations called the signs of the Zodiac. The Northern signs are (1) Aries the Ram (2) Taurus the Bull (3) Gemini the Twins (4) Cancer the Crab (5) Leo the Lion (6) Virgo the Virgin. The Southern Signs are: (7) Libra - the Balance; (8) Scorpio - the Scorpion; (9) Sagittarius - the Archeel (so) Capricornus - the Goat; (11) Aquarius - the Water-carrier; (12) Pisces - the Fishes.
	ZODIAC SYMBOLS (Northern) It is considered that the science of Astronomy was born of Astrology. For carrying out their 'trade' - soothsayers and magicians had gained knowledge of the Signs of the Zodiac. On this knowledge - mathematicians and other scientifically-minded men laid the foundation of Astronomy. The soothsayers had invented symbols as a sort of shorthand for the twelve Zodiac signs. These are still used - immediately recognised and accepted by astronomers. This card shows the symbols of Aries - Taurus and Gemini (Spring signs) and
	ZODIAC SYMBOLS (Southern) The six Southern Zodiac signs - Iske the Northern ones - are divided into two groups of three. Each has its symbol originating in astrology. Libra - Scorpio and Sagittarius are Autussin signs - Capricornus - Aquarius and Pisces Winter signs. Capricornus is also known as a Tropical and Libra as an Equinoctial sign. Astrology was practised in Babylonia as far back as 3000 B.C. and in Greece in the 4th Century B.C. and - although we may not now take it seriously - let us remember that so its scientific offspring - Astronomy - we owe our present wide and useful knowledge of the heavens.
	ARIES (The Ram) is mentioned by Eudoxus (4th Century B.C.); in Mythology it is said to be the Ram with Golden Fleece sacrificed to Zeus who placed it in the Heavens as a constellation. It is the first sign in the Zodiac. Only main stars - easy to identify - arc illustrated - but over 50 can be seen unaided and even thousands by usitig a powerful telescope. North of Aries is Triangulum - Cerus is South - Pisces is on the West and Taurus East. The bright star Hamal is used for navigation.
	TAURUS (Bull) second of the Zodiacal Signs - has two main groups of stars in the constellation. One is Hyades - a V-shaped group; the other is the Plriades clustcr. According to fable - the Pleiades are the seven daughters of Atlas turned to stars with their sisters - the Hyades - on account of their virtues and mutual affection. The red star Aldebaran (Follower) so named for following the Pleiades - is principal star in Hyades group - and a navigation star. Mythology says that the god Jupiter took the shape of a bull when he abducted Europa and carried her to Crete.
	GEMINI (Twins) third Zodiacal sign - is between Taurus and Cancer. It contains seseral double stars - and is represented on most Cejestial maps by male twins of mythology - Castor and Pollux Castor is a binary or 'double star' consoling of two white sues of approximately same magnitude - but appears as one very bright star excert when seen through a telescope. Pollux is a navigational star. Castor - Pollux and other principal Gemini stars are very noticeable - because the adjoining areas of Cancer and Lynx constellations have few stars of great magnitude.
	CANCER (Crab) is fourth sign - and first of Summer Signs - of Ziadiac. The sun enters Cancer on 21st June - giving the Northern Hemisphere their longest day and the Southern their shortest. The Sun - reaching its greatest height in the North - moves backward along ecliptic - which accounts for the Crab being used as symbol for this sign. Cancer contains several 'double' stars and a 'triple' stat. Over 90 stars can be seen with the naked eye. One cluster of over 150 stars of sixth and lower magnitudes was known to ancients as Praesepe or Beehive.
	LEO (Lion) fifth sign of the Zodiac - is bounded on the West by Cancer - on the East by Virgo. It is easy to locate . . . a straight line from the Pole Star to Plough Pointers leads to Leo. February to end of June is good time for viewing - but evenings in March and April are best. Principal and very prominent star is Regulus . . . also known as Car Leonis (Lion's Heart) or Royal Star. Regulus - Gamma Leonis and several smaller stars form a group shaped like a sickle. Prom near these stars most of November meteor showers known as Leonids radiate.
	VIRGO (Virgin) sixth Sign of the Zodiac - is bounded on East by Ubra - West by Leo - North by Bootes - and on South by Corvus and Hydra. Best seen from April to July. Virgo was sometimes represented as Ceres (Goddess of Corn and Harvest) or as an angel holding ears of corn in her hand - because the Sun enters this sign when cereal crops are ready for harvesting. Over 180 stars are visible to naked eye. Mast brilliant is Spica (Ear of Corn) - a navigational star of first magnitude - easy to locate because of its isolated appearanee.
	LIBRA (Balance) seventh Sign of the Zodiac - and first Autumnal Sign. The Sun enters this part of Ecliptic at Autumnal Equinox when days and nights are equal in length-hence its name. Libra is bounded by Virgo on the West - Scorpio on the East - Serpent on the North and Centaurus on the South. It is an inconspicuous constellation - having no stars of great magnitude - although there are several double and triple stars; also two clusters in one of which Heeschel observed 200 different stars of eleventh and lets magnitude.
	SCORPIO (Scorpion) is the eighth Sign of the Zodiac. Not large but a brilliant constellation. Can be seen in Europe only in June and July owing to its low altitude. Bounded on the West by Libra - on the East by Sagittarius - on the North by Serpens - and on the South by Lupus and Ara. Most prominent star is Antares. known also as Cor Scorpii (Heart of Scorpion) - its diameter being over 400 times as large as that of our Sun - but its density very small. Ancient astrologers deemed Scorpio accursed-a source of war - discord and universal evil.
	tSAGIITARIUS (The Archer) The ninth Sign in the Zodiac and third of the Southern Signs - symbolized by the Centaur - part man and part beast - shoot-ing an arrow. The main part of the group lies in the Milky Way. Old astrologers considered it a lucky sign. Nunki - the uppermost and brightest sear - and Kaus Australis - are navigational stars. Can be seen in July and August and in early evening in September - but not well as it is low on the horizon.
	CAPRICORNUS (Sea Goat) tenth sign of the Zodiac and fourth Southern Sign - is bounded on the West by Sagittarius - on the East and North-East by Aquarius - on the North by Aquila - and on the South by Piscis Austrinus. It was mentioned by Eudoxus in 4th Century B.C. The two main stars are Alpha and Beta Capricorni. Ancients represented it sometimes as a goat but mainly as a creature having forepart of a gnat and hind-part of a fish - probably because of amount of rain at this season. Capricornus is seen from August to October.
	AQUARIUS (Water-carrier) 11th Sign of the Zodiac - is seen front August to October. Eoundrd on the East by Pisces and Cetus - on the West by Aquila - on the North by Pegasus and Eqiuleus - on the South by Piscis Austrinus. About 150 stars are visible to the naked eye. When the Venerable Bede changed the names of the Zodiac signs so those of Saints - he called Aquarius John the Baptist' - probably because it marked the rainiest of months. Principal star Alpha Aquarii - a pale yellow double star of 3rd magnitude - is known as King's Lucky Star.
	POLARIS (Pole Star) though not the most brilliant - is the most important star in the heavens owing to its sitaation close to the Celestial North Pole - and it has become known as the Pole Star. In the Northern Hemisphere it is always visible and is used by astronomers and navigators. Stars near the Pole seem to move slowly around it and those far away quickly; this is because they have to cover much larger circles in the same time. At the North Pole - the Pole Star is exactly overhead - but as one travels south it sinks downwards towards the horizon.
	PISCES (Fishes) is the twelfth Sign of the Zodiac. Greek legend states Aphrodite and Eros jumped into the Euphrates when surprised by Typhon and were changed into two fishes. Bounded on North by Andromeda - on South by Cetus - on West by Pegasus and Aquarius - and on East by Aries and Triangulum. Pisces was mentioned by Eudoxus (famous Greek astronomer and mathematician 4th Century B.C.). Alpha Piscium - a close double star of 3 and 4 magnitude-pale green and blue in colour - is its largest star
	URSA MAJOR (The Great Bear) main part of which is also known as The Dipper - Plough - David's Car - Bier of Lazarus and Charles' Wain - is always visible in Great Britain. It is a guide to other constellations. It seemingly makes a complete circuit of the sky around Polaris (the Pole Star) in 23 hours 56 minutes; this is actually due to the Earth's rotation. The Plough consists of seven white sears. Dubhe and Merak are pointers to Polaris.
	URSA MINOR (The Little Bear) Like Ursa Major - though smaller - it is easily distinguished by seven main stars. It contains Polaris (North Pole Star) - a yellow star of second magnitude of us-most use so mariners and astronomers. To ordinary observers - Polacis appears to be the only star which never changes position; actually is does so very slightly - describing a circle of 2' 25' daily about she true Pole lllustration shows position of Little Bear at 11:30 p.m. on first day of the month indicated. 'Ihales - Greek astronomsr in 7th Century B.C. - recommended its use for navigation.
	CANIS MAJOR (The Great Dog) Old legends say Canis Major was 'the hound of Orion when hunting'. Isis visible from December so March - below Orion on the horizon. Its main star is Sirius (Dog Star) - brightest of all stars - and one of she nearest to the Earth - being only about nine light years. distant. Sirius means 'sparkling' and appears so change colour quickly as is sparkles . . . mainly a blue-white. Eastern nations looked suits rising as the precursor of great heat - hence 'the dog days' - Sirius being overhead in our dog days - though invisible
	CYGNUS (The Swan) A Northern Hemisphere constellation (known also as she Northern Cross) in the Milky Way - directly east of she Lyre - and nearly on she same meridian as the Dolphin. Seen from May to December - Its brightest star - Deneb - is in the tail of the Swan - and always above she horizon in England. One named 61 Cygni (a small variable star in this constellasion and almost in-visible so the naked eye) - was the first so have iss distance from the Earth determined 50 billion miles
	CRUX (Southern Cross) One of she smallest constellations consisting of few stars visible to naked eye; yes isis nioss attractive - so varied are she coloured stars contained therein. Situated in the Southern Hemisphere - it is always visible at Chpe Town and in Australia. It stands out from she Milky Way - and is near a hollow region - destitute of stars - known as 'Coalsack' because of its seeming blackness. Upper and lower stars in centre of the cross point downwards so position of the South Pole - which is approximately 27' 38' 8' from lowest star
	PEGASUS (The Winged Horse) is seen upside down in our latitudes. Only half of Pegasus is illustrated in celestial maps-one star - Alpherasz - forming part of she adjoining constellasion of Andromeda. It is prominent on she meridian at midnight in September. There are many small stars within and in clear atmosphere ovrr too may be observed. Markab - a white star of second magnitude - is a navigational star. Scheat is a deep yellow star also of second magnitude. According to mythology Bellerophon tried so ride so heaven on Pegasus' back and was thrown off
	HERCULES This is a summer constellasion and is best seen May to October. Is is large and very interesting although containing no star of greaser than 3rd magnitude; within is there are numerous double stars - clusters and nebulae. One great cluster is estimated to contain over 1,5000 stars concentrated into a very small space in a roughly globular form - and has always been of intense interest to astronomers. Kneeling figure of Hercules - son of Jupiter - is seen upside down. This constellation was mentioned by Eudoxus (4th Century B.C.).
	CASSIOPEIA is on the opposite side of she Pole Star from The Plough. Is consists notably of a group of five very bright sears forming a W. Two of these - Ruchbah and Caph - are navigation stars. This constellation contains about 6o stars visible without the aid of a a telescope. Is is named after Cassiopeia - wife of Cepheus - King of Ethiopia - and mother of Andromeda who was saved from a sea monster by Perseus (Greek Mythology)
	PERSEUS This Northern Hemisphere constellasion is called after the Greek legendary hero - Perseus - son of Jupiter - who rescued Andromeda - daughter of Cassiopeia - from the sea monster. Heis records 136 stars visible therein without telescopic aid. Its main stars are Mirfak - a navigational star - and A gol-a star which varies from second so fourth magnitude - then back so second in about seven hours - and remaining as its greatest lustre for nearly 3 days. Perseus is in the Milky Way - north of Taurus - south of Cassiopeia - east of Tndngsilum and west of Auriga.
	THE MILKY WAY called by the Greeks 'Galaxy' and by the Latins 'Via Lactea.' on account of its colour and appearance - is a soft zone of luminous misty light forming a broad bus very irregular girdle around she heavens. Is covers about one tenth of whole sky. This light is formed by myriads of tiny faint stars - mostly too small so be observed independently (even with powerful telescopes) - wish a. scattering of larger - brighter stars shining here and there. Dark spaces in it see not due to absence of stars - bus to dark nebulous matter veiling the stars beyond
	AURORA BOREalIS The Aurora Borealis is a phenomenon of she night sky. In the atmosphere are seen long quivering streamers of light - usually seeming so radiate from an arc - These hands of light are often white - bus sometimes red - green - or yellowish. Is is most frequently seen between 63 degrees and 80 degrees northern latitude and is believed so be caused by discharges of electricity in she rare sipper atmosphere - travelling along the lines of magnetic force which point towards she magnetic North Pole. A similar phenomenon in she Southern hemisphere is known as the Aurora Australis.
	RADIO TELESCOPES for study of she heavenly bodies have been in use for some time - and a giant one is being erected in Cheshire so transmit and receive ultra-short-waves. These waves are picked up by a large curved wire mesh in a framework - shaped like a bowl fire - which can be pointed anywhere; they are ihen focused on so an aerial. Disturbances on she sun (sun-spots etc.) emit short radio waves. These affect ordinary radio transmissions by disturbing she upper atmosphere bus such interferences may he obviated through discoveries made by Radio Telescopes.
	COMPOSITION OF A STAR To find out what the stars are made of - we study their light. Starlight is studied by using a spectroscope - in which it is passed through a glass prism and broken sip into a coloured band like a rainbow. Dark lines across this 'spectrumn' are due so substances in the star's outer layers which have absorbed certain colours. By comparing the colours with those produced by known chemical substances in the laborasory - it has been found that stars consist almost entirely of hydrogen - with small amounts of gaseous iron - chromium - nickel - and other metals.
	AStrOLABE bOne of the earliest instruments used by astronomers - Originally they were spherical in shape and consisted of divided metal circles corresponding so ecliptic - meridian - etc. - with which the position of she Sun - Moon and Stars could be measured with fair accuracy. Hipparchus - Greek Astronomer - used one before 100 B.C. Tycho Brahe - Danish astronomer who died in 1601 - had one similar to that illustrated - Portable asseolabes varying in size from two inches so a foot were first made in the Bass in 15th Century and later were used in India - Persia and Arabia

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